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4.1.2 国际销售合同中包含的信息
-Information included in an international sales contract

For each sale it is usual for the contract to state the:
1.currency to be used for payment;
2.exact nature and quantity of the goods or services;
3.price;
4.packing requirements;
5.inspection and quality control requirements;
6.insurance requirements;
7.要适用的运输条款 – 谁在货物旅程的每个阶段安排和支付运输、运费和所有其他成本、关税和税款。
shipping terms to be applied – who arranges and pays for carriage, freight and all other costs, duties and taxes at each stage of the goods’ journey (see Topic 6 on Incoterms® for more information);
8.货物必须发货/交付的截止日期
date by which goods must be despatched/delivered;
9.付款的方法和时间，以及在何时风险和所有权，运输的货物从卖方转移到买方。
method and timing of payment, and at what point risk to, and ownership of, the goods shipped passes from the seller to the buyer.

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4.1.1  Negotiating the contract

一旦卖方出示了合同，合同将构成他们向买方的要约，买方可以通过以下方式之一作出回应
Once a seller has produced the contract, it will constitute their offer to the buyer, who may respond in one of the following ways.

1.给予所呈现的接受。在某些法域，即使是对合同的口头协议也可能构成接受。此外，当事人也可能开始履行合同时接受合同。
Give acceptance as presented. Even a verbal agreement to the contract can constitute an acceptance in some jurisdictions. Additionally, acceptance may also occur by the parties beginning to perform the contract.
2.给予接受，但有保留或条件。这代表了还价，必须由卖方考虑，然后卖方可以接受提议的修正案，或者返回进一步的要约供买方考虑。
Give acceptance, but with reservations or conditions. This represents a counter‑offer, which will have to be considered by the seller, who may then accept the amendments proposed or go back with a further offer for the buyer to consider.
3.完全拒绝这个提议。
Reject the offer entirely.

值得注意的是，买方也可以制作合同并将其发送给卖方，卖方可能会以类似的方式作出反应。要约和还价可以在双方之间来回流动，直到最终达成相互协议或最终拒绝和放弃谈判进程，也许将在以后恢复。
It is worth noting that buyers can also produce contracts and send them to sellers, who may respond in a similar way. Offers and counter‑offers may flow backwards and forwards between the parties until, eventually, either mutual agreement is reached or there is a final rejection and abandonment of the negotiation process, perhaps to be resumed at a later date.
一旦双方（或代表双方有效）达成并最终协议并签署，合同将对卖方和买方均具有约束力，任何进一步的修改都需要双方的同意，最好以书面形式证明。
Once final agreement is reached and signed by (or validly on behalf of) both parties, the contract will be binding to both the seller and buyer, and any further amendments will require consent of both parties, preferably evidenced in writing.

一旦合同到位，必须遵守所有条款。如果不是，则构成违约，除非存在根据合同法律使其终止的事件，例如不可抗力。典型的违约行为包括交付不合格的货物、延迟装运或未能履行承诺。一方当事人违反合同通常使另一方当事人有权对遭受的任何损失提出法律索赔，在某些情况下，宣告合同无效（即放弃其义务）。
Once a contract is in place, all terms must be complied with. If they are not, then this constitutes a breach of contract, unless there is some event that under the law of the contract brings it to an end, such as force majeure. Typical breaches would include delivery of substandard goods, late shipment or failure to carry out what was promised. A breach of contract by one party usually entitles the other party to make a legal claim for any losses suffered and, in some cases, to void the contract (ie walk away from their obligations).

但是，在大多数商业安排中，双方将尝试自己解决任何分歧，并且只有在无法解决争议时才会将争议提交仲裁或某种替代性争议解决方案或调解。只有作为最后的手段，面临实际和重大损失的一方才会诉诸法院寻求补救，这可能既昂贵又耗时，而且结果不确定。
However, in most commercial arrangements the parties will attempt to resolve any differences themselves and will only take the dispute to arbitration or some alternative dispute resolution or mediation if they cannot do so. Only as a last resort will the party facing an actual and significant loss go to the courts for redress, which is potentially expensive and time‑consuming, and the outcome uncertain.

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不可抗力-FORCE MAJEURE
法语为”优越的力量”，意思是上帝的行为。这是任何一方都无法控制的事件，例如骚乱，战争或自然灾害。
French for ‘superior force’, meaning an act of God. This is an event beyond the control of either party, such as riot, war or natural disaster.

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我们已经看到国际贸易中有许多当事方和中介机构，它们在交易中都扮演着自己的角色。买家和卖家的任务是了解这些角色。中介机构将通过减轻许多风险来使交易顺利结算。了解国际银行如何相互合作，通过RTGS和CLS等系统促进这些交易也很重要。
In this topic we have seen that there are numerous parties and intermediaries within international trade, all of which have their own role to play in a transaction. It is the task of buyers and sellers to understand these roles. Intermediaries will enable the smooth settlement of a transaction by mitigating many of the risks. It is also important to understand how international banks work with each other to facilitate these transactions through systems such as RTGS and CLS.

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3.8.8 使用支票的缺点-Disadvantages of using cheques

在某些国家/地区，将支票寄出国外可能会违反买方政府的外汇管制规定。买方的银行和受益人的银行通常对处理此类支票收取高额费用。
In some countries, sending a cheque abroad may contravene the exchange control regulations of the buyer’s government. The buyer’s bank and the beneficiary’s bank usually impose heavy charges for handling such cheques.

在收取支票的时间与买方银行实际汇出资金的时间之间不可避免地存在延迟。加快支票清算过程的一种方法是使用”密码箱”设施，这对于向美国销售并由买方支票付款的卖家特别有用。买方被指示将支票邮寄到美国的邮局（PO）箱地址。当地银行每天至少打开一次”密码箱”，并开始清算支票。这个过程大大减少了清算时间，因为支票本身不必从美国到原籍国再返回。银行可以通过与国外代理银行安排来组织”密码箱”设施。
There is an inevitable delay between the time when the cheque is collected and the time when funds are actually remitted by the buyer’s bank. One method of speeding up the process of clearing cheques is to use a ‘lockbox’ facility, which is particularly useful for sellers who sell to the USA and who are paid by the buyer’s cheque. The buyer is instructed to post the cheque to a post office (PO) box address in the USA. A local bank opens the ‘lockbox’ at least once a day and initiates the clearing of the cheques. This process dramatically reduces the clearing time because the cheque itself does not have to go from the USA to the originating country and back again. Banks may be able to organise ‘lockbox’ facilities by making arrangements with correspondent banks abroad.

支票结算
CHEQUE CLEARING
出示支票获得付款的过程。
The process of presenting cheques for payment.
美国每天使用超过2000万张支票，但这只是20年前（美联储，2021年）的三分之一。在许多地区，特别是欧洲，支票的使用正在迅速下降，一些地方已经完全取消了支票，如比利时，荷兰，芬兰和波兰。
Over 20m cheques are used in the USA every day, but this is just a third of the total presented 20 years ago (Federal Reserve, 2021). In many regions, particularly Europe, the use of cheques is declining rapidly, and some places have eliminated them altogether, such as Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland and Poland.

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3.8代理银行业务-Correspondent banking

3.8.7 银行汇票和客户支票 Bank drafts and customer cheques

~银行汇票~

付款也可以使用银行汇票进行，银行汇票是买方银行开具的一种支票形式，支付给卖方，由买方银行在卖方所在国的代理行支付。如果汇票以卖方自己的货币计算，则资金可以直接记入卖方的账户。如果汇票不是卖方的货币，其银行可以协商汇票，并按现行汇率贷记当地等值货币，但须收取一些费用。其他，银行可将汇票寄给付款银行支取金额。银行之间的结算将通过nostro和vostro账户进行。
Payments can also be made with bank drafts, a form of cheque drawn by a buyer’s bank, payable to the seller and drawn on the buyer’s bank’s correspondent in the seller’s country. If the draft is in the seller’s own currency, the funds can be credited directly to the seller’s account. If the draft is not in the seller’s currency, its bank may negotiate the draft and credit the local currency equivalent at the prevailing exchange rate, subject to any charges. Otherwise, the bank will send the draft to the drawee bank for collection of the proceeds. Settlement between the banks will be via the nostro and vostro accounts.

~支票~

买方可以通过签发自己的支票付款，但须遵守当地的外汇管制条例。卖方的银行可以同意议付支票 – 即贷记卖方的账户 – 或将支票发送给其代理以获得付款，即通过跟单清收。
A buyer can pay by issuing its own cheque, subject to local exchange control regulations. The seller’s bank may either agree to negotiate the cheque – credit the seller’s account immediately – or send the cheque to its correspondent to obtain payment, ie via a documentary collection (see Topic 8).

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议付将涉及向卖方收取费用，以支付付款和收款之间向银行支付的利息和手续费。如果支票是外币，则此费用可以计入汇率。议付将是“有追索权”的，即如果支票未支付，银行将从卖方的账户中扣除以收回最初议付的金额。因此，议付措施由银行自行决定。
Negotiation will involve a charge to the seller to cover the interest and handling cost to the bank for the period between making and receiving payment. This charge can be built into the exchange rate if the cheque is in a foreign currency. Negotiation will be ‘with recourse’, ie if the cheque is unpaid, the bank will debit the seller’s account to recover the amount originally negotiated. Negotiation facilities are therefore at the bank’s discretion.

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清收：卖方收款的前提是其银行收到来自买方银行的付款。
A collection means that the seller will only get funds when its bank receives payment from the buyer’s bank.

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3.8代理银行业务-Correspondent banking

3.8.6 外国银行账户Foreign bank accounts

希望在其他国家/地区进行或接收定期付款的公司，可能能够开设自己的外国账户。这些公司在其国内银行的代理银行开立账户，或者，如果其银行由同一银行集团的另一成员或分行在国外代表，则可以在该集团成员或分行开立账户。在外国开立账户将受到当地银行账户规则和适用于外国公民账户的任何外汇管制的约束。
A company that expects to make or receive regular payments in another country may be able to open its own foreign account(s). Such companies open an account with their domestic bank’s correspondent bank or, if their bank is represented in the foreign country by another member of the same banking group or by a branch, then an account can be opened with that group member or branch. Opening an account in a foreign country will be subject to any local rules governing bank accounts and to any exchange controls applicable to accounts belonging to foreign nationals.

如果该公司的国内银行是在其与之进行交易的国家/地区有代表的一组银行的成员，则开设外国银行账户可能是管理和转移资金的最有效手段。例如，一家在国外设有子公司的银行可以提供一项服务，使持有该子公司的外国账户的客户能够立即在两国之间转账，并在线提供付款指示。
If the domestic bank of the company is a member of a group of banks with representation in the country with which it is trading, opening a foreign bank account can be a most efficient means of managing and transferring money. For example, a bank with a subsidiary abroad may offer a service that gives its customers with foreign accounts held with that subsidiary the ability to transfer money instantly between the two countries, giving payment instructions online.

外国银行还可以提供专业服务，如零平衡，净额结算，清扫等 – 所有这些都使公司能够优化其现金状况。
The foreign bank may also offer specialised services such as zero‑balancing, netting, sweeping, etc –all of which enable a company to optimise its cash position.

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3.8代理银行业务-Correspondent banking