2022年3月 – 第3页

CITF-学习笔记（4.4 《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》（《销售公约》） UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG)）

4.4 《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》（《销售公约》）
UN Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG)

推荐阅读：
4.4.1 Content of the CISG
4.4.2 Criticism of the CISG

1980年《销售公约》是一项国际法协定，规定了关于国际货物销售合同订立的法律规则守则。《销售公约》是由联合国国际贸易法委员会（贸易法委员会）制定的，虽然它于1980年在维也纳签署，但直到1998年1月1日才生效，当时有11个国家批准了它。它有时被称为”维也纳公约”。
The 1980 CISG is an agreement under international law that provides a code of legal rules governing the formation of contracts for the international sale of goods. The CISG was developed by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) and although it was signed in Vienna in 1980 it did not come into force until 1 January 1998, when it was ratified by 11 countries. It is sometimes referred to as ‘the Vienna Convention’.

截至2020年9月，它已得到94个国家的批准，占世界贸易的很大一部分。
As of September 2020, it had been ratified by 94 countries, which accounts for a significant proportion of world trade.

已批准该条约的国家在条约中被称为”缔约国”。《销售公约》被视为已纳入这些缔约国之间任何贸易的国内法，除非个别合同的明文条款排除在外。
Countries that have ratified the treaty are referred to within the treaty as ‘contracting states’. The CISG is deemed to be incorporated into the domestic law of any trade between these contracting states, unless excluded by the express terms of the individual contract.
该名单中的主要缺席者包括印度，南非和英国，由于国内法律和政府原因，它们都决定不批准《销售公约》。
The major absentees from this list include India, South Africa and the UK, which for domestic legal and governmental reasons have all decided not to ratify the CISG.
在与尚未批准条约的国家的对应方打交道时，贸易商需要意识到，除非合同中另有规定，否则当地法律和习俗通常将适用，他们不应依赖条约条款来涵盖这些交易。
When dealing with counterparties in countries that have not ratified the treaty, traders need to be aware that local laws and customs will normally apply, unless otherwise specified in the contract, and they should not rely on the terms of the treaty to cover these transactions.
《销售公约》为起草国际合同确立了普遍规则，并允许出口商避免选择法律，而法律选择是涉及法律冲突的案件诉讼的一个阶段。
The CISG establishes universal rules for drafting international contracts and allows the exporter to avoid choice of law, which is a stage in the litigation of a case involving conflicts of laws.
《销售公约》以六种语言编写，贸易法委员会（2010年，第32页）将每种语言描述为”同等作准”，其风格都使用通俗易懂的语言。每一项案文都避免使用国内法律术语，并加以翻译，以便缔约国能够方便地加以解释。
The CISG is written in six languages – each described as “equally authentic” by UNCITRAL (2010, p32)– in a style that uses plain language. Each text avoids domestic legal terminologies and is translated so that it can be easily interpreted by the contracting states.

位于发展中国家的小型和中型企业和贸易商在与发达国家较大的对应方打交道时，往往具有相对较弱的讨价还价地位。此外，他们在谈判合同时通常无法获得法律咨询。通过为属于其范围的合同提供公平和统一的条例，《销售公约》可以对这些企业特别有利。
Small and mediu‑sized enterprises and traders located in developing countries can often have a relatively weak bargaining position when dealing with larger counterparties from the developed world. In addition, they generally lack access to legal advice when negotiating a contract. By providing fair and uniform regulations for contracts falling under its scope, the CISG can be particularly beneficial to such businesses.

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CITF-学习笔记（4.3 合同管理 Contract management）

4.3 合同管理 Contract management

这个过程 – 从潜在的订单到确定的合同，最后到交付 – 通常非常耗时，并且可能涉及卖方方面的多个部门。在合同前阶段，卖方必须与其销售部门和生产或供应部门联系，以便能够报出潜在的交货日期和价格。账户或出口部门必须熟悉并准备出口文件。
The process – from potential order to a firm contract and finally to delivery – will often be time‑consuming and may involve several departments on the seller’s side. At pre‑contract stage, the seller will have to liaise with its sales department and the production or supply department to be able to quote potential delivery dates and prices. The accounts or export department will have to become familiar with, and prepare, export documentation.

信用控制经理必须了解如何管理风险，并考虑最合适的结算方法。这可以是通过赊账，跟单信用证，提前付款或通过账单收取付款，具体取决于新客户的信用状况和状态报告。我们探索这些结算方法，以及与每种结算方法相关的买方和卖方风险。
The credit control manager must understand how to manage the risks and consider the most appropriate method of settlement. That could be payment by open account, documentary credit,payment in advance or by bill for collection, depending on the new customer’s credit standing and status report. We explore these methods of settlement, and the buyer and seller risks associated with each one, in more detail in Topic 7.

为了履行合同，需要团队合作，每个相关人员都必须谨慎处理其交易部分，以确保货物出口符合相关合同。
To fulfil the contract, a team effort is required and everyone involved must handle their part of the transaction with care to ensure that the export of goods is made in accordance with the relevant contract.
1.需要订购供应品或安排劳动力。
Supplies need to be ordered or labour arranged.
2.必须生产货物。
Goods must be manufactured.
3.必须安排包装。
Packaging must be arranged.
4.必须预订运输和运输空间。
Transport and shipping space must be booked.
5.货物必须及时发往港口、机场或目的地，或及时送达服务。
Goods will have to be despatched to the port, airport or place of destination in time, or services delivered in a timely manner.
6.所有必要的文件应由出口文件部门获取和提供。
All necessary documentation should be obtained and supplied by the export documentation department.
7.应告知买家运输细节。
The buyer should be advised of shipping details.
8.所有必要的文件必须尽快直接或通过银行系统提交给买方付款，具体取决于合同中规定的付款方式。
All necessary documents must be submitted for payment directly to the buyer or via the banking system, depending on the method of payment set out in the contract, as quickly as possible.
9.需要有效的出口订单管理来监督所有这些功能并定期检查进度。
Effective export order management will be required to oversee all these functions and to periodically check progress.

从订购日期到最终完成日期之间的成本变化并不罕见，必须考虑到这种风险，无论是在原材料，劳动力成本，保险和运费方面，还是在汇率波动的始终存在的因素中。如果合同要有利可图且可行，卖方将需要监控所有这些问题。
Changes in costs between the dates of order and final completion are not unusual and such risks must be allowed for, whether in raw materials, labour costs, insurance and freight costs, or the ever‑present factor of fluctuating exchange rates. The seller will need to monitor all of these issues if the contract is to be profitable and viable.

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CITF-学习笔记（4.2 订单流程 The ordering process）

4.2 订单流程 The ordering process

以下列表概括性地概述了卖方和买方之间如何处理订单。请注意，这只是一个指南，不包括跟单信用证或汇票等金融工具。
The following list outlines in general terms how an order may be processed between a seller and a buyer. Note that this is only a guide and does not include financial instruments such as documentary credits or bills of exchange.
1.收到买家的询问
An enquiry is received from a buyer.
2.卖方确定他们是否能够履行订单以及是否需要进行任何修改等。
The seller determines whether they are able to fulfil the order and whether any modifications are required, etc.
3.进行出口成本计算工作，以核实交易在商业上是否可行。
An export‑costing exercise is carried out to verify whether the transaction is commercially viable.
4.卖方此时可以进行尽职调查，以确定买方的信誉。
Due diligence may be carried out by the seller at this point to establish the creditworthiness of the buyer.
5.向买方提交书面报价
A written quotation is submitted to the buyer.
6.如果买方接受报价，则他们下订单。
If the buyer accepts the quotation, they place an order.
7.卖方接受订单。
The seller accepts the order.
8.订单由卖方处理，并安排货物的运输或服务的交付。
The order is processed by the seller and arrangements are made for shipment of the goods or delivery of services.
9.Goods are shipped.
10.任何相关文件都直接转发给买方或通过银行系统提交给买方。
Any relevant documents are forwarded direct to the buyer or through the banking system for presentation to the buyer.
11.收到货物或交付服务
Goods are received or services are delivered.
12.付款在合同规定的时间和方法进行。
Payment is made at the time and according to the method set out in the contract.
在已建立关系的情况下，可以使用电子邮件/传真或电子文档。
Where there is an established relationship, email/fax or electronic documentation may be used.

对于某些国家/地区，卖方必须向买方提供形式发票，并提供拟议装运的所有详细信息。买方可能要求这样做，以遵守当地的进口管制，或向中央银行申请释放外汇，或获得批准签发跟单信用证。
For some countries, the seller has to provide the buyer with a pro forma invoice, giving all the details of the proposed shipment. This may be required by the buyer to comply with local import controls, or for an application to the central bank for a release of foreign exchange, or to obtain approval for the issue of a documentary credit.

在没有现有协议的情况下，卖方可能会在贸易查询后甚至非常意外地收到形式发票。在这种情况下，它代表潜在买方的合同要约。卖方需要对买方进行所有必要的查询，然后决定是否接受提交的形式发票，协商更改或拒绝更改。
Where there is no existing agreement, a seller may receive a pro forma invoice following a trade enquiry or even quite unexpectedly. In such cases, it represents a contractual offer from a potential buyer. The seller would need to make all necessary enquiries regarding the buyer and then decide whether to accept the pro forma invoice as submitted, to negotiate changes or to refuse it.

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CITF-学习笔记（4.1.2 国际销售合同中包含的信息 -Information included in an international sales contract）

4.1.2 国际销售合同中包含的信息
-Information included in an international sales contract

For each sale it is usual for the contract to state the:
1.currency to be used for payment;
2.exact nature and quantity of the goods or services;
3.price;
4.packing requirements;
5.inspection and quality control requirements;
6.insurance requirements;
7.要适用的运输条款 – 谁在货物旅程的每个阶段安排和支付运输、运费和所有其他成本、关税和税款。
shipping terms to be applied – who arranges and pays for carriage, freight and all other costs, duties and taxes at each stage of the goods’ journey (see Topic 6 on Incoterms® for more information);
8.货物必须发货/交付的截止日期
date by which goods must be despatched/delivered;
9.付款的方法和时间，以及在何时风险和所有权，运输的货物从卖方转移到买方。
method and timing of payment, and at what point risk to, and ownership of, the goods shipped passes from the seller to the buyer.

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CITF-学习笔记（4.1.1 Negotiating the contract）

4.1.1 Negotiating the contract

一旦卖方出示了合同，合同将构成他们向买方的要约，买方可以通过以下方式之一作出回应
Once a seller has produced the contract, it will constitute their offer to the buyer, who may respond in one of the following ways.

1.给予所呈现的接受。在某些法域，即使是对合同的口头协议也可能构成接受。此外，当事人也可能开始履行合同时接受合同。
Give acceptance as presented. Even a verbal agreement to the contract can constitute an acceptance in some jurisdictions. Additionally, acceptance may also occur by the parties beginning to perform the contract.
2.给予接受，但有保留或条件。这代表了还价，必须由卖方考虑，然后卖方可以接受提议的修正案，或者返回进一步的要约供买方考虑。
Give acceptance, but with reservations or conditions. This represents a counter‑offer, which will have to be considered by the seller, who may then accept the amendments proposed or go back with a further offer for the buyer to consider.
3.完全拒绝这个提议。
Reject the offer entirely.

值得注意的是，买方也可以制作合同并将其发送给卖方，卖方可能会以类似的方式作出反应。要约和还价可以在双方之间来回流动，直到最终达成相互协议或最终拒绝和放弃谈判进程，也许将在以后恢复。
It is worth noting that buyers can also produce contracts and send them to sellers, who may respond in a similar way. Offers and counter‑offers may flow backwards and forwards between the parties until, eventually, either mutual agreement is reached or there is a final rejection and abandonment of the negotiation process, perhaps to be resumed at a later date.
一旦双方（或代表双方有效）达成并最终协议并签署，合同将对卖方和买方均具有约束力，任何进一步的修改都需要双方的同意，最好以书面形式证明。
Once final agreement is reached and signed by (or validly on behalf of) both parties, the contract will be binding to both the seller and buyer, and any further amendments will require consent of both parties, preferably evidenced in writing.

一旦合同到位，必须遵守所有条款。如果不是，则构成违约，除非存在根据合同法律使其终止的事件，例如不可抗力。典型的违约行为包括交付不合格的货物、延迟装运或未能履行承诺。一方当事人违反合同通常使另一方当事人有权对遭受的任何损失提出法律索赔，在某些情况下，宣告合同无效（即放弃其义务）。
Once a contract is in place, all terms must be complied with. If they are not, then this constitutes a breach of contract, unless there is some event that under the law of the contract brings it to an end, such as force majeure. Typical breaches would include delivery of substandard goods, late shipment or failure to carry out what was promised. A breach of contract by one party usually entitles the other party to make a legal claim for any losses suffered and, in some cases, to void the contract (ie walk away from their obligations).

但是，在大多数商业安排中，双方将尝试自己解决任何分歧，并且只有在无法解决争议时才会将争议提交仲裁或某种替代性争议解决方案或调解。只有作为最后的手段，面临实际和重大损失的一方才会诉诸法院寻求补救，这可能既昂贵又耗时，而且结果不确定。
However, in most commercial arrangements the parties will attempt to resolve any differences themselves and will only take the dispute to arbitration or some alternative dispute resolution or mediation if they cannot do so. Only as a last resort will the party facing an actual and significant loss go to the courts for redress, which is potentially expensive and time‑consuming, and the outcome uncertain.

不可抗力-FORCE MAJEURE
法语为”优越的力量”，意思是上帝的行为。这是任何一方都无法控制的事件，例如骚乱，战争或自然灾害。
French for ‘superior force’, meaning an act of God. This is an event beyond the control of either party, such as riot, war or natural disaster.

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CITF-学习笔记（4.1 The contract）

In general terms, for a valid contract to come into effect, the following conditions must have been met:

There must be a firm offer and an acceptance of that offer.
There must be an intention to create a contract.
There must be consideration – each party provides something to the other.
There must be capacity to contract – for a limited company that means that the nature of the business is within the objectives set out in the company’s memorandum and articles.（必须有能力签订合同 – 对于有限公司而言，这意味着业务性质在公司备忘录和章程中规定的目标范围内）
Consent must be freely given without duress and without basis in false information.（必须在没有胁迫和虚假信息依据的情况下同意。）
The purpose must be legal.

The requirement for formal validity of a contract will differ in jurisdictions around the world. Local legal advice should always be taken as sometimes local laws will apply irrespective of the governing law chosen in the contract. In some jurisdictions even a verbal agreement is binding.（合同正式有效性的要求因世界各地的司法管辖区而异。应始终接受当地法律建议，因为有时无论合同中选择的管辖法律如何，当地法律都将适用。在某些法域，甚至口头协议也具有约束力。）

When the parties involved are frequent and experienced traders, they will usually each have a standard set of contract terms that they would like to impose on any orders. On many occasions, the parties involved will be satisfied with a pro forma invoice or an email with the specifications of the goods or services to be delivered, which will then be returned by the buyer with their approval.（当涉及的各方是频繁且经验丰富的交易者时，他们通常会有一套标准的合同条款，他们希望对任何订单施加这些条款。在许多情况下，有关各方将收到形式发票或电子邮件，其中包含要交付的货物或服务的规格，然后由买方在获得批准后退回。）

PRO FORMA INVOICE
“[An] invoice, usually one sent to a new customer, asking for payment before goods or services are supplied.” (Cambridge Dictionary, no date)

形式发票-发票，通常发送给新客户，要求在提供货物或服务之前付款

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CITF-学习笔记（TOPIC 3-Conclusion）

我们已经看到国际贸易中有许多当事方和中介机构，它们在交易中都扮演着自己的角色。买家和卖家的任务是了解这些角色。中介机构将通过减轻许多风险来使交易顺利结算。了解国际银行如何相互合作，通过RTGS和CLS等系统促进这些交易也很重要。
In this topic we have seen that there are numerous parties and intermediaries within international trade, all of which have their own role to play in a transaction. It is the task of buyers and sellers to understand these roles. Intermediaries will enable the smooth settlement of a transaction by mitigating many of the risks. It is also important to understand how international banks work with each other to facilitate these transactions through systems such as RTGS and CLS.

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CITF-学习笔记（3.8.9连续联动结算 Continuous linked settlement (CLS)）

3.8.9连续联动结算 Continuous linked settlement (CLS)

CLS是由多家银行拥有和运营的机构，这些银行从事大型多币种银行间结算，用于扎差其他CLS参与者的资金，特别是日内（当天）外汇交易。
CLS is the name of an institution owned and operated by banks engaged in large multi‑currency inter‑bank settlements of money owed to other CLS participants, particularly for intra‑day (same‑day) foreign exchange transactions.

银行参与者的好处是-The benefits to bank participants are:
1.消除结算风险 – 一家银行欠另一家银行不支付的风险
elimination of settlement risk – the risk that one bank owing money to another does not pay;
2.成本效益
cost‑efficiency;
3.易于管理银行部门，该部门对已付款和到期付款。
ease of management for the department of the bank that reconciles payments made and due.

在全球金融危机最严重的时候，一些金融市场（如短期银行存款和借贷市场）”冻结”。然而，外汇市场继续运作。正是CLS程序提供的保证确保了信心，因此流动性继续可用。
At the height of the global financial crisis, some financial markets (such as the short‑term inte ‑bank deposit and borrowing markets) ‘froze’. However, the foreign exchange markets continued to function. Many commentators believe that it was the guarantee afforded by the CLS process that ensured confidence, and hence liquidity continued to be available.

CLS的使用减少了银行nostro/vostro账户关系的数量。
The use of CLS has reduced the number of bank nostro/vostro account relationships.

EXAMPLE
CLS 对 nostro/vostro 帐户的影响CLS
-impact on nostro/vostro accounts
英国银行可能会定期将客户发起的资金转移发送给在几家不同的美国银行的多个受益人。在CLS之前，UK Bank plc将需要与每家美国银行建立nostro/vostro关系，否则将面临美国境内资金内部转移的延迟。现在，英国银行只需要一个nostro账户。英国银行将使用此Nostro账户对CLS履行其向美国受益人转移资金的义务。CLS将把资金转移到美国银行，前提是UK Bank plc有足够的美元余额来履行这些义务。
UK Bank plc may regularly send customer‑initiated transfers of funds to several beneficiaries who bank at several different US banks. Prior to CLS, UK Bank plc would have needed nostro/vostro relationships with each US bank, the alternative being to face delays in the internal transfer of the funds within the USA. Now, UK Bank plc needs only one nostro account. UK Bank plc will use this nostro account to meet its obligations to CLS as regards the transfers of funds to US beneficiaries. It is CLS that will transfer the funds to the US banks, provided that UK Bank plc has sufficient balances in US dollars with CLS to meet these obligations.

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CITF-学习笔记（3.8.8 使用支票的缺点-Disadvantages of using cheques）

3.8.8 使用支票的缺点-Disadvantages of using cheques

在某些国家/地区，将支票寄出国外可能会违反买方政府的外汇管制规定。买方的银行和受益人的银行通常对处理此类支票收取高额费用。
In some countries, sending a cheque abroad may contravene the exchange control regulations of the buyer’s government. The buyer’s bank and the beneficiary’s bank usually impose heavy charges for handling such cheques.

在收取支票的时间与买方银行实际汇出资金的时间之间不可避免地存在延迟。加快支票清算过程的一种方法是使用”密码箱”设施，这对于向美国销售并由买方支票付款的卖家特别有用。买方被指示将支票邮寄到美国的邮局（PO）箱地址。当地银行每天至少打开一次”密码箱”，并开始清算支票。这个过程大大减少了清算时间，因为支票本身不必从美国到原籍国再返回。银行可以通过与国外代理银行安排来组织”密码箱”设施。
There is an inevitable delay between the time when the cheque is collected and the time when funds are actually remitted by the buyer’s bank. One method of speeding up the process of clearing cheques is to use a ‘lockbox’ facility, which is particularly useful for sellers who sell to the USA and who are paid by the buyer’s cheque. The buyer is instructed to post the cheque to a post office (PO) box address in the USA. A local bank opens the ‘lockbox’ at least once a day and initiates the clearing of the cheques. This process dramatically reduces the clearing time because the cheque itself does not have to go from the USA to the originating country and back again. Banks may be able to organise ‘lockbox’ facilities by making arrangements with correspondent banks abroad.

支票结算
CHEQUE CLEARING
出示支票获得付款的过程。
The process of presenting cheques for payment.
美国每天使用超过2000万张支票，但这只是20年前（美联储，2021年）的三分之一。在许多地区，特别是欧洲，支票的使用正在迅速下降，一些地方已经完全取消了支票，如比利时，荷兰，芬兰和波兰。
Over 20m cheques are used in the USA every day, but this is just a third of the total presented 20 years ago (Federal Reserve, 2021). In many regions, particularly Europe, the use of cheques is declining rapidly, and some places have eliminated them altogether, such as Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland and Poland.

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CITF-学习笔记（3.8.7 银行汇票和客户支票 Bank drafts and customer cheques）

3.8.7 银行汇票和客户支票 Bank drafts and customer cheques

~银行汇票~

付款也可以使用银行汇票进行，银行汇票是买方银行开具的一种支票形式，支付给卖方，由买方银行在卖方所在国的代理行支付。如果汇票以卖方自己的货币计算，则资金可以直接记入卖方的账户。如果汇票不是卖方的货币，其银行可以协商汇票，并按现行汇率贷记当地等值货币，但须收取一些费用。其他，银行可将汇票寄给付款银行支取金额。银行之间的结算将通过nostro和vostro账户进行。
Payments can also be made with bank drafts, a form of cheque drawn by a buyer’s bank, payable to the seller and drawn on the buyer’s bank’s correspondent in the seller’s country. If the draft is in the seller’s own currency, the funds can be credited directly to the seller’s account. If the draft is not in the seller’s currency, its bank may negotiate the draft and credit the local currency equivalent at the prevailing exchange rate, subject to any charges. Otherwise, the bank will send the draft to the drawee bank for collection of the proceeds. Settlement between the banks will be via the nostro and vostro accounts.

~支票~

买方可以通过签发自己的支票付款，但须遵守当地的外汇管制条例。卖方的银行可以同意议付支票 – 即贷记卖方的账户 – 或将支票发送给其代理以获得付款，即通过跟单清收。
A buyer can pay by issuing its own cheque, subject to local exchange control regulations. The seller’s bank may either agree to negotiate the cheque – credit the seller’s account immediately – or send the cheque to its correspondent to obtain payment, ie via a documentary collection (see Topic 8).

议付将涉及向卖方收取费用，以支付付款和收款之间向银行支付的利息和手续费。如果支票是外币，则此费用可以计入汇率。议付将是“有追索权”的，即如果支票未支付，银行将从卖方的账户中扣除以收回最初议付的金额。因此，议付措施由银行自行决定。
Negotiation will involve a charge to the seller to cover the interest and handling cost to the bank for the period between making and receiving payment. This charge can be built into the exchange rate if the cheque is in a foreign currency. Negotiation will be ‘with recourse’, ie if the cheque is unpaid, the bank will debit the seller’s account to recover the amount originally negotiated. Negotiation facilities are therefore at the bank’s discretion.

清收：卖方收款的前提是其银行收到来自买方银行的付款。
A collection means that the seller will only get funds when its bank receives payment from the buyer’s bank.