分类：CITF

 5.2.4 逃避制裁Sanctions evasion

制裁是一种工具，可以用来要求个人、组织或国家遵守特定的规则或法律。大多数制裁是出于经济和（或）政治动机，可能包括冻结资产，包括付款;冻结资产;贸易限制;停止外交、文化和体育交流;甚至军事干预。制裁可由国家和超国家机构发布，并可采取不同形式。它们可以是预防性的，也可以是反应性的，也可以是国内或国际的焦点。
“Sanctions are a tool that can be used to persuade an individual, organisation or country to conform to specific rules or laws. Most sanctions are economically and/or politically motivated and may encompass the freezing of assets, including payments; restrictions on trade; cessation of diplomatic, cultural, and sport exchanges; and even military intervention. Sanctions may be issued by national and supranational bodies and can take on different forms. They can be preventative or reactive in nature, as well as domestic or international in focus.

虽然可以实施一系列不同的制裁，但对金融机构影响最大的制裁是金融制裁。这些通常限制或禁止将资金或经济资源转移给某些个人，实体甚至国家。
“制裁最常在国际上使用：
While a range of different sanctions may be applied, those most often impacting on financial institutions are financial sanctions. These generally restrict or prohibit the passing of funds or economic resources to certain individuals, entities, or even countries.”
“Sanctions are most often used internationally:
1.改变特定国家或政权的行为
to change the behaviour of a specific country or regime;
2.向特定国家或政权施压以取得成果
to pressure a specific country or regime to achieve an outcome;
3.防止资助恐怖主义
to prevent the financing of terrorism;
4.当国际和平与安全受到威胁时
when international peace and security is threatened;
5.当所有外交努力都失败时
when all diplomatic efforts have failed.”

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返回：5.2 金融犯罪的形式Forms of financial crime

4.3 合同管理 Contract management

这个过程 – 从潜在的订单到确定的合同，最后到交付 – 通常非常耗时，并且可能涉及卖方方面的多个部门。在合同前阶段，卖方必须与其销售部门和生产或供应部门联系，以便能够报出潜在的交货日期和价格。账户或出口部门必须熟悉并准备出口文件。
The process – from potential order to a firm contract and finally to delivery – will often be time‑consuming and may involve several departments on the seller’s side. At pre‑contract stage, the seller will have to liaise with its sales department and the production or supply department to be able to quote potential delivery dates and prices. The accounts or export department will have to become familiar with, and prepare, export documentation.

信用控制经理必须了解如何管理风险，并考虑最合适的结算方法。这可以是通过赊账，跟单信用证，提前付款或通过账单收取付款，具体取决于新客户的信用状况和状态报告。我们探索这些结算方法，以及与每种结算方法相关的买方和卖方风险。
The credit control manager must understand how to manage the risks and consider the most appropriate method of settlement. That could be payment by open account, documentary credit,payment in advance or by bill for collection, depending on the new customer’s credit standing and status report. We explore these methods of settlement, and the buyer and seller risks associated with each one, in more detail in Topic 7.

为了履行合同，需要团队合作，每个相关人员都必须谨慎处理其交易部分，以确保货物出口符合相关合同。
To fulfil the contract, a team effort is required and everyone involved must handle their part of the transaction with care to ensure that the export of goods is made in accordance with the relevant contract.
1.需要订购供应品或安排劳动力。
Supplies need to be ordered or labour arranged.
2.必须生产货物。
Goods must be manufactured.
3.必须安排包装。
Packaging must be arranged.
4.必须预订运输和运输空间。
Transport and shipping space must be booked.
5.货物必须及时发往港口、机场或目的地，或及时送达服务。
Goods will have to be despatched to the port, airport or place of destination in time, or services delivered in a timely manner.
6.所有必要的文件应由出口文件部门获取和提供。
All necessary documentation should be obtained and supplied by the export documentation department.
7.应告知买家运输细节。
The buyer should be advised of shipping details.
8.所有必要的文件必须尽快直接或通过银行系统提交给买方付款，具体取决于合同中规定的付款方式。
All necessary documents must be submitted for payment directly to the buyer or via the banking system, depending on the method of payment set out in the contract, as quickly as possible.
9.需要有效的出口订单管理来监督所有这些功能并定期检查进度。
Effective export order management will be required to oversee all these functions and to periodically check progress.

从订购日期到最终完成日期之间的成本变化并不罕见，必须考虑到这种风险，无论是在原材料，劳动力成本，保险和运费方面，还是在汇率波动的始终存在的因素中。如果合同要有利可图且可行，卖方将需要监控所有这些问题。
Changes in costs between the dates of order and final completion are not unusual and such risks must be allowed for, whether in raw materials, labour costs, insurance and freight costs, or the ever‑present factor of fluctuating exchange rates. The seller will need to monitor all of these issues if the contract is to be profitable and viable.

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4.1.2 国际销售合同中包含的信息
-Information included in an international sales contract

For each sale it is usual for the contract to state the:
1.currency to be used for payment;
2.exact nature and quantity of the goods or services;
3.price;
4.packing requirements;
5.inspection and quality control requirements;
6.insurance requirements;
7.要适用的运输条款 – 谁在货物旅程的每个阶段安排和支付运输、运费和所有其他成本、关税和税款。
shipping terms to be applied – who arranges and pays for carriage, freight and all other costs, duties and taxes at each stage of the goods’ journey (see Topic 6 on Incoterms® for more information);
8.货物必须发货/交付的截止日期
date by which goods must be despatched/delivered;
9.付款的方法和时间，以及在何时风险和所有权，运输的货物从卖方转移到买方。
method and timing of payment, and at what point risk to, and ownership of, the goods shipped passes from the seller to the buyer.

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返回：4.The contract

4.1.1  Negotiating the contract

一旦卖方出示了合同，合同将构成他们向买方的要约，买方可以通过以下方式之一作出回应
Once a seller has produced the contract, it will constitute their offer to the buyer, who may respond in one of the following ways.

1.给予所呈现的接受。在某些法域，即使是对合同的口头协议也可能构成接受。此外，当事人也可能开始履行合同时接受合同。
Give acceptance as presented. Even a verbal agreement to the contract can constitute an acceptance in some jurisdictions. Additionally, acceptance may also occur by the parties beginning to perform the contract.
2.给予接受，但有保留或条件。这代表了还价，必须由卖方考虑，然后卖方可以接受提议的修正案，或者返回进一步的要约供买方考虑。
Give acceptance, but with reservations or conditions. This represents a counter‑offer, which will have to be considered by the seller, who may then accept the amendments proposed or go back with a further offer for the buyer to consider.
3.完全拒绝这个提议。
Reject the offer entirely.

值得注意的是，买方也可以制作合同并将其发送给卖方，卖方可能会以类似的方式作出反应。要约和还价可以在双方之间来回流动，直到最终达成相互协议或最终拒绝和放弃谈判进程，也许将在以后恢复。
It is worth noting that buyers can also produce contracts and send them to sellers, who may respond in a similar way. Offers and counter‑offers may flow backwards and forwards between the parties until, eventually, either mutual agreement is reached or there is a final rejection and abandonment of the negotiation process, perhaps to be resumed at a later date.
一旦双方（或代表双方有效）达成并最终协议并签署，合同将对卖方和买方均具有约束力，任何进一步的修改都需要双方的同意，最好以书面形式证明。
Once final agreement is reached and signed by (or validly on behalf of) both parties, the contract will be binding to both the seller and buyer, and any further amendments will require consent of both parties, preferably evidenced in writing.

一旦合同到位，必须遵守所有条款。如果不是，则构成违约，除非存在根据合同法律使其终止的事件，例如不可抗力。典型的违约行为包括交付不合格的货物、延迟装运或未能履行承诺。一方当事人违反合同通常使另一方当事人有权对遭受的任何损失提出法律索赔，在某些情况下，宣告合同无效（即放弃其义务）。
Once a contract is in place, all terms must be complied with. If they are not, then this constitutes a breach of contract, unless there is some event that under the law of the contract brings it to an end, such as force majeure. Typical breaches would include delivery of substandard goods, late shipment or failure to carry out what was promised. A breach of contract by one party usually entitles the other party to make a legal claim for any losses suffered and, in some cases, to void the contract (ie walk away from their obligations).

但是，在大多数商业安排中，双方将尝试自己解决任何分歧，并且只有在无法解决争议时才会将争议提交仲裁或某种替代性争议解决方案或调解。只有作为最后的手段，面临实际和重大损失的一方才会诉诸法院寻求补救，这可能既昂贵又耗时，而且结果不确定。
However, in most commercial arrangements the parties will attempt to resolve any differences themselves and will only take the dispute to arbitration or some alternative dispute resolution or mediation if they cannot do so. Only as a last resort will the party facing an actual and significant loss go to the courts for redress, which is potentially expensive and time‑consuming, and the outcome uncertain.

不可抗力-FORCE MAJEURE
法语为”优越的力量”，意思是上帝的行为。这是任何一方都无法控制的事件，例如骚乱，战争或自然灾害。
French for ‘superior force’, meaning an act of God. This is an event beyond the control of either party, such as riot, war or natural disaster.

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返回：4.The contract

我们已经看到国际贸易中有许多当事方和中介机构，它们在交易中都扮演着自己的角色。买家和卖家的任务是了解这些角色。中介机构将通过减轻许多风险来使交易顺利结算。了解国际银行如何相互合作，通过RTGS和CLS等系统促进这些交易也很重要。
In this topic we have seen that there are numerous parties and intermediaries within international trade, all of which have their own role to play in a transaction. It is the task of buyers and sellers to understand these roles. Intermediaries will enable the smooth settlement of a transaction by mitigating many of the risks. It is also important to understand how international banks work with each other to facilitate these transactions through systems such as RTGS and CLS.

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